EL GRECO
DOMENICOS THEOTOKOPOULOS
Greco, El (1541-1614). Cretan-born painter, sculptor, and architect who settled in Spain and is regarded as the first great genius of the Spanish School. He was known as El Greco (the Greek), but his real name was Domenikos Theotocopoulos; and it was thus that he signed his paintings throughout his life, always in Greek characters, and sometimes followed by Kres (Cretan).
Little is known of his youth, and only a few works survive by him in the Byzantine tradition of icon painting, notably the recently discovered Dormition of the Virgin (Church of the Koimesis tis Theotokou, Syros). In 1566 he is referred to in a Cretan document as a master painter; soon afterwards he went to Venice (Crete was then a Venetian possession), then in 1570 moved to Rome. The miniaturist Giulio Clovio, whom he met there, described him as a pupil of Titian, but of all the Venetian painters Tintoretto influenced him most, and Michelangelo's impact on his development was also important.
CHRONOLOGY OF NIKOS KAZANTZAKIS' LIFE
1883 Nikos Kazantzakis born in Heraklion, Crete.
· 1902 - 1906 Kazantzakis studies Law in Athens.
· 1907 - 1909 Studies in Paris, where he is influenced by his tutor Henri Bergson
· 1914 Meets Angelos Sikelianos, with whom he travels to Mount Athos and elsewhere in Greece.
· 1918 - 1919 Travels to Switzerland and Russia as a senior civil servant, assisting in the repatriation of Greeks from the Caucasus.
· 1922 Lives in Vienna and Berlin.
· 1924 Returns to Greece and to Crete.
· 1925 - 1929 Makes three journeys to Russia.
· 1932 - 1933 Travels to Spain for several months.
· 1935 Travels to China and Japan.
· 1936 Reports on the Spanish Civil War as a foreign correspondent for the Kathimerini newspaper.
· 1939 Is invited by the British Council to England, where he spends the first few months of World War Two.
· 1940 Returns to Greece and lives on Aegina for the duration of the War and the German occupation.
· 1946 Leaves Greece for England, staying temporarily in Cambridge. In September 1946 Kazantzakis settles in Paris, where he works for a short time as a literary advisor to UNESCO .
· 1948 Settles in Antibes in the South of France. While continuing to write, he takes a keen interest in the numerous translations and publications of his works around the world.
· 1957 Travels to China, where he falls ill. Returns to Europe (Copenhagen) and is subsequently transferred to Freiburg University Hospital, where he dies on 26th October 1957.
CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR WORKS.
1927 Askitiki (or Salvatores Dei) A concise philosophical text, in which Kazantzakis expresses his metaphysical beliefs.
1927 - 1941 Travels Several volumes of the author's reflections on travels in Spain, Italy, Sinai, Japan, England, Russia, Jerusalem and Cyprus.
1929 - 1938 Odyssey An ambitious work divided into twenty-four "Rhapsodies" comprising a total of 33 333 lines of iambic decapentasyllable verse.
1938 - 1948 A series of plays on themes from ancient and modern history: Prometheus, Capodistrias, Kouros (or Theseus), Nicephorus Phocas, Constantine Palaeologos, Christopher Columbus, Sodom and Gomorrah, Buddha, Melissa.
CRETE MYTHOLOGY
Crete is the large island in the Mediterranean Sea, southeast of Greece. The first Cretan kings were Archedius, Gortys 2, and Cydon 1, sons of Tegeates, the founder of Tegea in Arcadia. Tegeates was son of the impious Lycaon 2, who lived at the time of The Flood [see Mythical Chronology]. The three brothers emigrated from Arcadia to Crete, and it is said that the city Gortyna was named after Gortys 2, and Cydonia after Cydon 1.
After them, Tectamus (son of Dorus 1, son of Hellen 1, son of Deucalion 1, the man who survived the flood) sailed to Crete with Aeolians and Pelasgians, and became king of the island. During his reign, Zeus carried off Europa from Phoenicia. Tectamus' son Asterius 3 married Europa and inherited the kingdom, being himself succeeded on the throne by Minos 1, son of Zeus and Europa. Minos 1 was succeeded by his son Lycastus 1, and the latter by his famous son Minos 2, who some call son of Zeus and Europa. The architectural creations of Daedalus (the Labyrinth, the Wooden Cow, the Dancing-floor for Ariadne) are from the age of Minos 2.
Location of Crete
He waged war against Athens and Megara, imposing tribute to the former, and conquering the latter through the treason of the daughter of King Nisus 1. But during his reign, the power of Crete decayed, and Theseus slew the Minotaur and abducted Ariadne, being helped by Daedalus. Minos 2 died in Sicily, where he had come looking for the traitor Daedalus, killed by King Cocalus or by the latter's daughters.
Minos 2 was succeeded by Idomeneus 1, who became leader of the Cretans during the Trojan War. At his return from Troy, however, he was prevented to land on the Crete, or driven out of the island by the usurper Leucus 1.
Throne Succession in Crete
Archedius migrated to Crete where the city Catreus was called after him. He was son of Tegeates, son of Lycaon 2, and her mother was Maera 3, daughter of Atlas].
Gortys 2 migrated to Crete where the city Gortyna was called after him. He was son either of Tegeates and Maera 3, or of Rhadamanthys, son of Europa .Cydon 1 migrated to Crete where the city Cydonia was called after him. He let his daughter Eulimene 2 be sacrificed in order to get a better result in war, as an oracle had advised. He was son either of Tegeates and Maera 3, or of Hermes and Acalle, called daughter of Minos 2.
Tectamus
Tectamus sailed to Crete with Aeolians and Pelasgians and became king of the island. During the time when he was king of Crete, Zeus carried off Europa from Phoenicia. Tectamus was son of Dorus 1, son of Hellen 1, son of Deucalion 1, the man who survived the Flood. He married a daughter of Cretheus 1, son of Aeolus 1, and had by her a son Asterius 3.
Asterius 3
Asterius 3 (Asterion 3) is the king of Crete who married Europa and brought up her children by Zeus. Himself he was childless, or perhaps he had a daughter Crete 1, sometimes said to be the wife of Minos 2. Asterius 3 was son of Tectamus, who sailed to Crete with Aeolians and Pelasgians and became king of the island, and a daughter of Cretheus 1, son of Aeolus 1. Tectamus, from whom Asterius 3 inherited the throne of Crete, was son of Dorus 1, eponym of the Dorians and son of Hellen 1, eponym of the Hellenes and son of Deucalion 1, the man who survived the Flood.
Minos 1
Minos 1 was king of Crete after Asterius 3. He was son of Zeus and Europa, and father, by Itone (daughter of Lyctius) of Lycastus 1.
Lycastus 1
Lycastus 1 succeeded his father Minos 1 on the throne, and was himself succeeded by Minos 2.
Deucalion 2
Deucalion 2, also counted among the ARGONAUTS and the CALYDONIAN HUNTERS, was son of Minos 2, either by Pasiphae or by Crete 1. His children were: Idomeneus 1, Crete 2, and Molus 1. It is said that when Theseus was about to leave Crete, he joined battle with the Cretans at the gate of the Labyrinth and there he slew Deucalion 2 and his bodyguard.
Idomeneus 1
Idomeneus 1 was leader of the Cretans during the Trojan War. At his return from the war he was driven out of Crete by the usurper Leucus 1 who besides had become the lover of Idomeneus 1's wife Meda 2, whom Leucus 1 later killed, along with Idomeneus 1's daughter Clisithyra. Nothing is told about Idomeneus 1's son Orsilochus 4. Idomeneus 1, who is counted among the SUITORS OF HELEN and those who hid inside the WOODEN HORSE, was son of Deucalion 2, son of Minos 2.
Leucus 1
Leucus 1 became the lover of Meda 2, while Idomeneus 1 was fighting against Troy, and having killed her and her daughter became a tyrant, who drove out Idomeneus 1 when he returned from Troy.
When Nyctimus succeeded to the kingdom of Arcadia, there occurred the Flood in the age of Deucalion 1. Some said that it was caused by the impiety of Lycaon 2 and his sons. Zeus, by pouring rain from heaven flooded the greater part of Hellas, so that all men were destroyed, except a few who fled to the high mountains. It was then that the mountains in Thessaly parted, and that all the world outside the Isthmus and Peloponnesus was overwhelmed.
Besides the Flood in the time of Deucalion 1, there have been other floods. The island of Atlantis, for example, was swallowed up by the sea, and vanished with the third of the floods which preceded the deluge in the age of Deucalion 1.
The Flood in the Age of Deucalion 1
This Flood occurred at the time when Cecrops 1 ruled in Athens, as some say, but others say that Cranaus (his successor) was already king when the Flood took place. The city Cyrbe in Rhodes was completely destroyed by the Flood.
Agenor 1, father of Cadmus and Europa, belongs to this time, and so does Danaus 1, father of the DANAIDS. Also Teucer 2, king of the Teucrians, at the very origins of the Trojan lineage, lived about this time.
ARIADNE
When Theseus came to Crete, Ariadne, having fallen in love with him, offered to help him to disclose the way out of the Labyrinth if he would agree to take her to Athens and made her his wife. Theseus agreed and swore to do so, but after leaving Crete he deserted her in Naxos. There she was found by the god Dionysus 2, who fell in love with her.
Early life unknown
Ariadne was one of the many children of King Minos 2 of Crete. During her time, the naval power of her father decayed, and she contributed to it by providing aid to Theseus, prince of Athens. And it is when Theseus came to Crete that Ariadne came into the story, for we know nothing about her childhood.
Helped Theseus
The story says that Ariadne, having consulted the architect Daedalus (the same that constructed a dancing floor for her at Cnossus), helped Theseus to find his way out from the Labyrinth, where he was supposed to be destroyed by the Minotaur, as had been all young men and women that until then had been yearly sent, as a tribute, from Athens to Crete.
Tribute to the Minotaur
Theseus was among those who were sent from Athens as the third tribute to the Minotaur, and some have said that he offered himself voluntarily to be a part of this group. In any case, when Theseus arrived Ariadne fell in love with him, and offered him help if he would agree to marry her and take her with him to Athens.
Ariadne's thread
Theseus, whose life was in danger, agreed on oath to do so, and Ariadne obtained from Daedalus, the constructor of the Labyrinth, the necessary instructions for finding the way out. At Daedalus' suggestion, she gave Theseus a ball of thread, which he fastened to the door when he went in, so that, after killing the Minotaur, he could make his way out by gathering the thread.
Naval battle
This is how Theseus saved his own life and the lives of the young men and girls that had been offered to the Minotaur. When he came out of the Labyrinth, he sailed with them and Ariadne from Crete and came to the island of Naxos, which is one of the Cyclades, and in order to prevent the Cretan fleet to pursue them he staved in the bottoms of the ships. But some have said that there was a naval battle in the Cretan harbour as Theseus was sailing out, in which a general of Minos 2, Taurus 1, lost his life.
Funeral games
However, it has also been said that General Taurus 1 was conquered by Theseus in wrestling during certain funeral games held by King Minos 2. The Cretans, including the king, were particularly pleased to see their own general defeated in the games; for as it seems, he was a hateful personage, being accused besides of having intimacy with Queen Pasiphae. It is told that Ariadne saw Theseus for the first time during these games.
Invasion of Crete
Still others have said that Theseus came to Crete with a fleet in order to punish Deucalion 2, who had succeeded his father Minos 2 in the throne of Crete, after the king died in Sicily looking for the fugitive Daedalus. As they say, Daedalus came to Athens, and when this was known Deucalion 2 demanded Daedalus delivered to him, or else he would kill the Athenian hostages. Theseus answered with courtesy, but he secretly built a fleet, receiving help from King Pittheus of Troezen, and when it was ready he set sail taking with him Daedalus and Cretan exiles as guides. While doing all this, Theseus kept the friendly atmosphere, so that when the Cretans saw the fleet approaching they did not suspect it to be hostile, and that is why Theseus easily made himself master of the harbour and, having disembarked his troops came to Cnossus and took it by surprise, killing Deucalion 2 and his body guard at the gate of the Labyrinth.
Peace treaty
At the death of Deucalion 2, they say, Ariadne became the head of the state, and a truce was made between her and Theseus, the hostages being released and a treaty being signed between Athens and Crete.
Treason not rewarded
According to the tale of the thread and also in accordance with Theseus' oath, Ariadne and Theseus should have sailed to Athens. But that never happened, probably because Theseus could not suffer to marry her who had betrayed her country. For those deeds are never rewarded, and when Scylla 2, for the sake of her passion for the besieger Minos 2, betrayed both father and city, he, on becoming the master of Megara, tied her by the feet to the stern of a ship and drowned her. And Amphitryon killed Comaetho 1, who having fallen in love with him, betrayed his father and the kingdom of Taphos to him. Also Pisidice 4, princess of Methymna in the island of Lesbos, fell in love with Achilles when he was besieging the city, and she promised to put the town into his possession if he would take her to wife. Achilles consented, but when the town was in his power he bade his soldiers stone her.
What in fact took place when Ariadne and Theseus left Crete, if they did leave together, has been narrated differently:
Ariadne committed suicide ...
Some have said that Ariadne hung herself when she saw herself abandoned by Theseus.
... or lived with a priest ...
Others say that she was conveyed to Naxos by sailors and that there she lived with Oenarus, priest of Dionysus 2.
... or died in Cyprus ...
It has also been told that Theseus and the pregnant Ariadne separated in Cyprus, where they came driven by a storm. Theseus set her on shore alone, but while trying to save the ship, he was borne out to sea by the waves. Ariadne then was taken into the care of Cyprian women, who in order to comfort her in her loneliness, brought her forged letters which they said had been written by Theseus. They also buried her in a grove when Ariadne died before giving birth.
... or was abandoned ...
Still others say that Theseus feared the reproach of the Athenians if he brought Ariadne to the city and so, having come to Dia (an island north of Crete, opposite Cnossos), he left her while she was asleep.
... killed or made immortal ...
And some say that here she was killed by Artemis, following instructions of Dionysus 2, but others say that Dionysus 2 married brown-haired Ariadne, and Zeus made her deathless andunageing for him.
The Crown of Ariadne
Dionysus 2 then put the Crown (Corona Borealis) among the constellations, for when he married her on the island of Dia they received wedding gifts from the gods, and among them there was a crown, gift of Aphrodite and the HORAE. Yet others have said that Dionysus 2 received this golden crown with Indian gems from Ariadne herself as a present. A valuable one, for by the glow of the gold and gems Theseus had been able to make his way out of the gloomy Labyrinth, and not as others believed by unwinding the so called Ariadne's thread.
More about the crown
But others have said that the crown was given to Ariadne by Theseus after having taken it from the depth of the sea. For when Theseus came to Crete with the youths there was a dispute between him and King Minos 2 who, refusing to believe that Theseus was Poseidon's son, drew a gold ring from his finger and cast it into the sea, where it could be easily found by a son of Poseidon. So Theseus cast himself into the sea and brought back, not only the ring of Minos 2 but also the crown that the Nereid Thetis had received from Aphrodite as a wedding gift (though some believe this crown came from Amphitrite, wife of Poseidon). And as Theseus had now proved both lineage and courage he received Ariadne as wife and he gave the crown to her.
Memory of Adriane causes death of Theseus' father
On returning from Crete, Theseus was supposed to spread white sails on his ship on approaching Athens. But he, worried because of the loss of Ariadne, forgot the signal that he had agreed with his father Aegeus 1 who, seeing from the Acropolis in Athens the ship with a black sail, thought that Theseus had died, and cast himself down and perished.
Minotaur
The Minotaur was a bull-headed man, whom
King Minos 2 shut up in the Labyrinth that Daedalus constructed in Crete.
The Athenians were then forced by Minos 2 to send every year seven young men -
and seven young women to be fodder of this famous beast.
King Minos 2 upsets Poseidon
King Minos 2 of Crete affirmed that he had received the kingdom from the gods, and in order to prove it, he declared that whatever he prayed for would be granted. Then, while sacrificing to Poseidon, he prayed that a bull might appear from the sea, and he promised to sacrifice it to the god. Poseidon did send him a beautiful bull, but Minos 2 thought it wiser to sacrifice another bull instead. In this way, he caused the anger of the god, who noticing that he had been deluded by the king, contrived that Minos 2's wife Pasiphae should fall in love with the bull..
Architect at the service of the Queen's passions
Now, the skilful architect Daedalus, who having been banished from Athens for murder lived in Crete, assisted her in satisfying her passion. For he constructed a wooden cow on wheels, hollowed it out in the inside, sewed it up in the hide of a cow which he had skinned, and set it in the meadow where the bull used to graze. Then Pasiphae introduced herself into the wooden cow, and so the bull, taking the wooden cow for a real one, came and coupled with her. After some time, Pasiphae gave birth to Asterius 7, who became known as the Minotaur, since he had the head of a bull.
It has been also told that, for several years, Pasiphae had not made offerings to Aphrodite, and that it is for that reason that the goddess inspired in her this unnatural love for the bull. In any case, when Minos 2 discovered the affair, he cast Daedalus into prison for having used his skill for such unnatural purposes, and for having helped to corrupt the queen.
A Minotaur's life
Minos 2 shut his monstruous stepson up?the bull-headed man?, and guarded him in the Labyrinth, which had been also built by Daedalus. He who entered the Labyrinth could not find his way out because many a winding turn shut off the secret outward way. The Labyrinth was a chamber whose passageways were so winding that those unfamiliar with them had difficulty in making their way out. In this Labyrinth, the Minotaur was maintained, and here it devoured the youths who were sent to it from Athens.
Crete's sanctions on Athens
The Athenians, who had been at war with Crete, were forced by Minos 2 to send every year seven youths and seven damsels to be fodder of the Minotaur (but it is also told that Minos 2 did not destroy the young persons whom the Athenians sent him for tribute, but kept them as servants).
Death of the Minotaur
When many young men and women had already been destroyed by the Minotaur in the Labyrinth, Theseus, who was to become king of Athens, was numbered among those who were sent as the third tribute to the Minotaur. It was then that Ariadne, daughter of Minos 2, fell in love with Theseus, and obtaining the secret to the Labyrinth from Daedalus, disclosed the way out to him.
Theseus killed the Minotaur after finding him in the last part of the Labyrinth; and with Ariadne's help, he found his way out, fled from Crete, and came to Naxos with her.